معلومات المساق
Legal terms used in private law.
المصطلحات المستعملة في القانون الخاص
£
- Natural persons, الأشخاص الطبيعيين
- Legal entities,الأشخاص الاعتبارية أو المعنوية (كيانات قانونية)
- A creditor: a person to whom money is owed.
الدائن: هو الشخص الذي له نقود لدى آخر
(owe: to have to pay. Ex. He owes me 20 pounds sterling £), and generally, a person to whom any obligation whatsoever is owed by another person.
من يجيب عليه الدفع. مثال أنت مدين لي بمبلغ 20 ليرة إسترلينيه، و عموما كل شخص عليه التزام كيفما كان تجاه شخص آخر.
- A debtor: a person who owes money.
المدين: هو من في ذمته مبلغ نقدي.
- Patrimony: the whole of a person’s assets and liability, both existing and future, assessable in money.
الذمة المالية: كافة الحقوق و الديون، الحاضرة والمستقبلة، المقومة نقدا.
- Patrimonial rights: rights pertaining to a person’s patrimony, i.e. which have pecuniary value.
الحقوق المالية: الحقوق المرتبطة بذمة الشخص المالية، أي ما كان لها قيمة مالية.
- VARIOUS KINDS OF PROPERTY: All property is movable or immovable:
مختلف أنواع الملكية. كل ملكية إما منقول أو عقار
1- Immovables: Property is immovable, either by its nature or by its destination. Lands and buildings are immovables by their nature.
العقارات: يكون الملك (أو المال) عقارا إما بطبيعته و إما بتخصيصه. الأراضي و المباني هي عقارات بطبيعتها.
2- Movables: Property is movable by its nature or by prescription of law. Animals and things which can move from one place to another, whether they move by themselves, or whether they can move only as the result of an extraneous power, are movables by their nature.
المنقولات: يكون المالك (أو المال) منقولا إما بطبيعته أو بنص القانون. الحيوانات و الأشياء التي يمكن نقلها من مكان إلى آخر، سواء انتقلت من تلقاء نفسها أو تم نقلها نتيجة قوة خارجية، تعبر منقولات بطبيعتها.
- Only things which may be the subject matter of legal transactions between private individuals may be the object of agreements.
الأشياء التي تكون موضوع التعامل القانوني بين أشخاص القانون الخاص يمكن أن تكون محلا للاتفاقات
- Owner: a person who owns something.
المالك: من يملك شيئا.
- Ownership is the right to enjoy and dispose of things in the most absolute manner, provided they are not used in a way prohibited by statutes or regulations,
الملكية: هو حق التمتع و التصرف في الأشياء بصفة مطلقة، بشرط أن لا تستعمل فيما تمنعه نصوص القانون و التنظيمات.
- Usufruct is the right to enjoy things of which another has ownership in the same manner as the owner himself, but on condition that their substance be preserved,
الانتفاع: هو حق التمتع بشيء يملكه الغير بنفس كيفية المالك له، على أن تبقى ذاتيته قائمة.
- Rights of use and habitation are established and lost in the same manner as usufruct.
الحق في الاستعمال و السكنى ينشآن و يفقدان بنفس كيفية حق الانتفاع.
- A servitude is a charge imposed on an immovable for the use and utility of another immovable belonging to another
الارتفاق: قيد على عقار لاستعمال و لمنفعة عقار آخر مملوك لآخر.
- A minor is an individual of either sex who has not yet reached the full age of nineteen years.
القاصر: هو الفرد، من الجنسين، الذي لم يبلغ بعد تمام تسعة عشر عاما.
- Majority is fixed at the full age of nineteen years; at that age one is capable of all the transactions of civil life.
الرشد محدد بسن التسعة عشر عاما؛ عند ذلك العمر يكون الواحد أهلا للقيام بجميع المعاملات المدنية.
Legal terms used in judicial procedure a judgment as an example
المصطلحات القانونية المستعملة في التقاضي الحكم القضائي كمثال
JUDGMENT
حكم
Mr A M Mohamud (in substitution for Mr A Mohamud (deceased)) (Appellant)
السيد أ. م. محمد (في مكان السيد أ. م. محمد المتوفى) المستأنف
V
ضد
WM Morrison
Supermarkets plc (Respondent)
سوبرماركت شركة عامة ذات مسئولية محدودة (مستأنف ضدها أو عليها)
Before: Lord Neuberger, President
Lady Hale, Deputy President
Lord Dyson
Lord Reed
Lord Toulson
JUDGMENT GIVEN صادر ON 2 March 2016
Heard جلسة الاستماع on 12 and 13 October 2015
Appellant Respondent
Joel Donovan QC Benjamin Browne QC
Adam Ohringer Roger Harris
Isabel Barter
(Instructed by Bar Pro
Bono Unit)
(Instructed by Gordons
Limited Liability Partnership)
شراكة محدودة المسئولية
1. Vicarious liability[1] in tort requires, first, a relationship between the
defendant and the wrongdoer, and secondly, a connection between that relationship
and the wrongdoer’s act or default, such as to make it just that the defendant
should be held legally responsible to the claimant for the consequences of the
wrongdoer’s conduct. In this case the wrongdoer was employed by the defendant,
and so there is no issue about the first requirement. The issue in the appeal is
whether there was sufficient connection between the wrongdoer’s employment and
his conduct towards the claimant to make the defendant legally responsible. By
contrast, the case of Cox v Ministry of Justice [2016] UKSC[2] 10, which was heard
by the same division of the court at the same time, is concerned with the first
requirement. The judgments are separate because the claims and issues are
separate, but they are intended to be complementary to each other in their legal
analysis. In preparing this judgment I have had the benefit of Lord Reed’s
judgment in Cox, and I agree fully with his reasoning and conclusion.
2. The question in this appeal concerns an employer’s vicarious liability in tort
for an assault[3] carried out by an employee. It is a subject which has troubled the
courts on numerous occasions and the case law is not entirely consistent (l’équivalent en français de coherent). In addressing the issues which it raises, it will be necessary to examine how the law in this area has developed, what stage it has reached and whether it is in need of significant change.
Facts
3. In this case the victim was a customer. I will call him the claimant although
he sadly died from an illness unrelated to his claim before his appeal was heard by
this court. The respondent company is a well known operator of a chain of
supermarkets. It has premises in Small Heath, Birmingham, which include a petrol
station. The petrol station has a kiosk with the usual display of goods and a counter
where customers pay for their purchases. One of the company’s employees was Mr
Amjid Khan. His job was to see that the petrol pumps and the kiosk were kept in
good running order and to serve customers.
4. The claimant was of Somali origin. On the morning of 15 March 2008 he
was on his way to take part with other members of his community in an event in
London. While he was at the petrol station he decided to inquire whether it would
be possible to print some documents from a USB stick which he was carrying.
5. The trial judge, Mr Recorder Khangure QC, accepted in full the claimant’s
account of what followed. The claimant went into the kiosk and explained to the
staff what he wanted. There were two or three staff present. Mr Khan, who was
behind the counter, replied by saying “We don’t do such shit”. The claimant
protested at being spoken to in that manner. Using foul, racist and threatening
language, Mr Khan ordered the claimant to leave. The claimant walked out of the
kiosk and returned to his car by the air pump. He was followed by Mr Khan. The
claimant got into his car and switched on the engine, but before he could drive off
Mr Khan opened the front passenger door and told him in threatening words never
to come back. The claimant told Mr Khan to get out of the car and shut the
passenger door. Instead, Mr Khan punched the claimant on his left temple, causing
him pain and shock. The claimant switched off the engine and got out in order to
walk round and close the passenger door. At this point Mr Khan again punched
him in the head, knocked him to the floor and subjected him to a serious attack,
involving punches and kicks, while the claimant lay curled up on the petrol station
forecourt, trying to protect his head from the blows. In carrying out the attack Mr
Khan ignored instructions from his supervisor, who came on the scene at some
stage and tried to stop Mr Khan from behaving as he did. The judge concluded that
the reasons for Mr Khan’s behaviour were a matter of speculation. The claimant
himself had said and done nothing which could be considered abusive or
aggressive.
The trial judge’s decision
In a detailed and impressive judgment, the judge reviewed the principal
authorities. He expressed great sympathy for the claimant but concluded that the
company was not vicariously liable for Mr Khan’s unprovoked assault. His
principal reason was that although Mr Khan’s job involved some interaction with
customers and members of the public who attended the kiosk, it involved nothing
more than serving and helping them. There was not a sufficiently close connection
between what he was employed to do and his tortious conduct for his employer to
be held vicariously liable, applying the “close connection” test laid down in Lister
v Hesley Hall Ltd [2001] UKHL 22; [2001] 1 AC 215 and followed in later cases
including Dubai Aluminium Co Ltd v Salaam [2002] UKHL 48; [2003] 2 AC 366.
A further reason given by the judge was that Mr Khan made a positive decision to
come out from behind the counter and follow the claimant out of the kiosk in
contravention of instructions given to him.
The Court of Appeal’s decision
7. The Court of Appeal (Arden, Treacy and Christopher Clarke LJJ) upheld
the judge’s decision that the claim against the company failed the “close
connection” test. The main points made in the judgments were that Mr Khan’s
duties were circumscribed. He was not given duties involving a clear possibility of
confrontation or placed in a situation where an outbreak of violence was likely.
The fact that his employment involved interaction with customers was not enough
to make his employers liable for his use of violence towards the claimant.
Christopher Clarke LJ added that if the question had been simply whether it
would be fair and just for the company to be required to compensate the claimant
for his injuries from the assault, there would be strong grounds for saying that it
should. The assault arose out of an interchange which began when the claimant
asked to be supplied with a service which he thought the company could provide.
Mr Khan, whose job it was to deal with such a request, followed up his refusal
with an apparently motiveless attack on the customer, who was in no way at fault.
The customer was entitled to expect a polite response. Instead he was struck on the
head and kicked when on the ground. In those circumstances it could be said that
the employer could fairly be expected to bear the cost of compensation, rather than
that the victim should be left without any civil remedy except against an assailant
who was unlikely to be able to pay full compensation. However, he concluded that
this was not the legal test, and that the fact that Mr Khan’s job involved interaction
with the public did not provide the degree of connection between his employment
and the assault which was necessary for the employer to be held vicariously liable.
1. مسؤولية المتبوع عن أعمال تابعه في قضايا الضرر تتطلب أولا علاقة بين المدعى عليه و مرتكب الضرر، و ثانيا رابطة بين هذه العلاقة و تصرف أو تقصير مرتكب الضرر، بحيث تؤدي إلى جعل المدعى عليه مسؤول قانونا تجاه المدعي عن نتائج تصرف مرتكب الضرر. في هذه القضية فإن مرتكب الضرر يعمل لدى المدعى عليه، و بهذه الكيفية ليس هناك أي إشكال فيما يخص الشرط الأول. و الإشكال في الاستئناف هو فيما إذا كانت هناك رابطة كافية بين استخدام مرتكب الضرر و تصرفه تجاه المدعي و هذا لجعل المدعى عليه مسؤولا قانونا. بالمقارنة فإن قضية Cox ضد وزارة العدل، التي عرضت على نفس القسم من هذه المحكمة و في نفس الوقت، كانت تتعلق بالشرط الأول. الأحكام كانت متفرقة كون الطلبات و المسائل المعروضة مختلفة، إلا أنه يراد لها أن تكون متكاملة فيما بينها و هذا في تحليلها القانوني. عند تحضير هذا الحكم انتفعت من حكم Lord Reed و أنا متفق معه كليا في تحليله و خلاصته.
2. المسألة، في هذا الاستئناف، تتعلق بمسؤولية المتبوع - صاحب العمل – في الضرر الناتج عن اعتداء بالضرب قام به عامل. لقد كان موضوعا أّّرّق المحاكم في عديد المناسبات و القانون القضائي غير متناسق. في التطرق للمسائل التي تثيرها يكون من الضروري النظر إلى الكيفية التي تطور فيها القانون في هذا المجال، و المرحلة التي وصل إليها و فيما إذا كان الأمر يحتاج إلى تغيير معتبر.
الوقائع.
3. في هذه القضية فإن الضحية كان زبونا. سأسميه المدعي بالرغم من أنه مع كل أسف توفي بسبب مرض لا علاقة لها بالطلب قبل أن يسمع استئنافه من هذه المحكمة. الشركة المستأنف عليها متعامل معروف في سلسلة سوبرماركت. لديها محال في Small Heath Birmingham تتضمن محطة توزيع البنزين. لدى محطة توزيع البنزين كشك حيث تعرض البضائع و مكان يدفع الزبائن ثمن مقتنياتهم. أحد عاملي الشركة كان السيد خان. عمله يتمثل في أن مضخات البنزين و الكشك يعملان بصفة جيدة مع تقديم خدمات للزبائن.
4. المدعي كان من أصول صومالية. في صباح 15 من مارس 2008 كان في طريقه إلى لندن للمشاركة في تظاهرة مع أعضاء من الجالية. حينما كان في محطة البنزين قرر أن يسأل فيما إذا كان بالإمكان طبع بعض الوثائق من خلال جهاز usb الذي كان يحمله.
5. قاضي الحكم السيد Recorder Khangure QC قبل بصفة كاملة ما أدلى به المدعي وفق ما يلي. توجه المدعي إلى الكشك و شرح للعاملين به ما كان يريده. كان هناك اثنان أو ثلاثة منهم. السيد خان، الذي كان خلف الصراف، رد بالقول "لا نقوم بهذا الشيء اللعين". اعترض المدعي على طريقة الكلام تلك. و باستعمال ألفاظ بذيئة و عنصرية و تهديدية أمر السيد خان المدعي بالمغادرة. خرج المدعي من الكشك متوجها إلى سيارته من طريق مضخة الهواء. تبعه السيد خان. دخل المدعي سيارته و أدار محركها و قبل أن يغادر فتح السيد خان باب السيارة من جهة المحاذي للسائق وقال مهددا أن لا يعود أبدا. طلب المدعي من السيد خان بالخروج من سيارته و أن يغلق بابها. بدل ذلك قام السيد خان بضرب المدعي جهة كتفه الأيسر ما سبب له ألما و ذعرا. قام المدعي بإسكات محرك السيارة و خرج منها ملتفا حولها قاصدا إغلاق باب السيارة. في هذه الأثناء قام السيد خان بضرب المدعي في الوجه و ركله في حين التف المدعي على نفسه و هو مستلق في حديقة محطة البنزين محاولا تفادي الضربات. في قيامه بالاعتداء تجاهل السيد خان تعليمات رئيسه الذي جاء إلى مكان الاعتداء لمنعه من التصرف بذلك الشكل. خلص القاضي بأن الأسباب التي أدت إلى تصرف السيد خان بتلك الطريقة تبقى محل جدل. فالمدعي نفسه لم يقل و لم يقم بأي شيء يمكن عده مبالغ فيه أو عدائي.
حكم القاضي.
6. كان الحكم في شكل تفصيلي و مبهر، بحيث استحضر الحكم أهم الأحكام القضائية ذات الصلة. فهو قد أظهر تعاطف كبير مع المدعي لكنه خلص إلى أن الشركة لا يمكن اعتبارها مسؤولة عن تعد السيد خان الذي لم يكن بسبب استفزاز. أهم سنده في ذلك أنه بالرغم من أن عمل السيد خان يتضمن تعامله مع زبائن و عوام يترددون على الكشك، لكن لا يتعدى ذلك خدمتهم و مساعدتهم. لم تكن هناك رابطة كافية بين العمل الذي استخدم لأجله و الضرر الذي سببه ما يجعل صاحب عمله مسؤول عنه مسؤولية المتبوع عن أعمال تابعه، و هذا باستخدام اختبار "الرابطة الوثيقة" الذي تم وضعه في Lister v. Hesley Hall Ltd و تبعته فيما بعد أحكاما قضائية أخرى بما فيها Dubai Aluminium Co Ltd v. Salaam. سبب آخر قدمه القاضي يتمثل في أن السيد خان اتخذ قراره و قدم من وراء منضدة كشكه و تبع المدعي خارج الكشك مخالفا بذلك تعليمات صاحب عمله.
قرار محكمة الاستئناف.
7. أيدت محكمة الاستئناف (Arden, Treacy and Christopher Clarcke LJJ) حكم القاضي بأن الادعاء ضد الشركة يعزوه اختبار "الرابطة الوثيقة". أهم النقاط المذكورة في الحكم كانت هي أن عمل السيد خان كان محددا. لم يكن يقتضي دوره أي تصادم و لم يوضع في موضع يمكن أن ينجر عنه نشوب عنف. كون عمله ينجر عنه تعامل مع زبائن ليس كافيا لجعل صاحب عمله مسؤولا عن استخدامه العنف تجاه المدعي.
أضاف Christopher Clarcke LJ أنه إن كان السؤال سهل يتمثل فيما إذا كان من العدل و الإنصاف أن تتولى الشركة تعويض المدعي عن أضراره الناشئة عن التعدي، فإن أسبابا قوية تدعو إلى ذلك. فالضرب نشب بسبب تبادل كلام حينما طلب المدعي خدمة كان يعتقد أن الشركة تؤديها. السيد خان، الذي كان عمله يتضمن التعامل مع ذلك، أعقب رفضه بما يظهر أنه تعد من دون سبب على الزبون الأخير الذي لم يرتكب أي خطأ. فالزبون ينتظر أن يتلقى ردا مؤدبا. بدل ذلك تعرض للضرب و الركل حينما كان على الأرض. في مثل هذه الظروف فإنه من العدل كان ينتظر أن تتحمل الشركة مبلغ التعويض بدل أن يترك المدعي من غير تعويض مدني إلا الرجوع على المعتدي الذي لا يتوقع منه أن يدفع كامل التعويض. غير أنه خلص أن ذلك لم يكن هو الاختبار القانوني، و أنه إن كان عمل السيد خان يفترض تعامله مع العامة لم يكن ليمنح ذلك درجة من العلاقة بين استخدامه و التعدي الصادر منه ليجعل صاحب العمل مسؤول عنه مسؤولية المتبوع عن أعمال تابعه.
[1] The general rule is that one who expressly authorises or ratifies a tort is personally liable, but there are circumstances in which a person is liable for the torts of another even in the absence of such authorisation or ratification. The liability which thus arises is known as vicarious liability and the most common example of it is the liability of a master for the torts of his servants committed in the course of their employment.
[2] UKSC: United Kingdom Supreme Court
[3] Assault is an act which directly and intentionally (or possibly negligently) causes the plaintiff reasonably to apprehend that a battery is about to be inflicted upon him by the defendant.
Legal terms used in judicial procedure a judgment as an example
المصطلحات القانونية المستعملة في التقاضي الحكم القضائي كمثال
JUDGMENT
حكم
Mr A M Mohamud (in substitution for Mr A Mohamud (deceased)) (Appellant)
السيد أ. م. محمد (في مكان السيد أ. م. محمد المتوفى) المستأنف
V
ضد
WM Morrison
Supermarkets plc (Respondent)
سوبرماركت شركة عامة ذات مسئولية محدودة (مستأنف ضدها أو عليها)
Before: Lord Neuberger, President
Lady Hale, Deputy President
Lord Dyson
Lord Reed
Lord Toulson
JUDGMENT GIVEN صادر ON 2 March 2016
Heard جلسة الاستماع on 12 and 13 October 2015
Appellant Respondent
Joel Donovan QC Benjamin Browne QC
Adam Ohringer Roger Harris
Isabel Barter
(Instructed by Bar Pro
Bono Unit)
(Instructed by Gordons
Limited Liability Partnership)
شراكة محدودة المسئولية
1. Vicarious liability[1] in tort requires, first, a relationship between the
defendant and the wrongdoer, and secondly, a connection between that relationship
and the wrongdoer’s act or default, such as to make it just that the defendant
should be held legally responsible to the claimant for the consequences of the
wrongdoer’s conduct. In this case the wrongdoer was employed by the defendant,
and so there is no issue about the first requirement. The issue in the appeal is
whether there was sufficient connection between the wrongdoer’s employment and
his conduct towards the claimant to make the defendant legally responsible. By
contrast, the case of Cox v Ministry of Justice [2016] UKSC 10, which was heard
by the same division of the court at the same time, is concerned with the first
requirement. The judgments are separate because the claims and issues are
separate, but they are intended to be complementary to each other in their legal
analysis. In preparing this judgment I have had the benefit of Lord Reed’s
judgment in Cox, and I agree fully with his reasoning and conclusion.
2. The question in this appeal concerns an employer’s vicarious liability in tort
for an assault[2] carried out by an employee. It is a subject which has troubled the
courts on numerous occasions and the case law is not entirely consistent. In
addressing the issues which it raises, it will be necessary to examine how the law
in this area has developed, what stage it has reached and whether it is in need of
significant change.
Facts
3. In this case the victim was a customer. I will call him the claimant although
he sadly died from an illness unrelated to his claim before his appeal was heard by
this court. The respondent company is a well known operator of a chain of
supermarkets. It has premises in Small Heath, Birmingham, which include a petrol
station. The petrol station has a kiosk with the usual display of goods and a counter
where customers pay for their purchases. One of the company’s employees was Mr
Amjid Khan. His job was to see that the petrol pumps and the kiosk were kept in
good running order and to serve customers.
4. The claimant was of Somali origin. On the morning of 15 March 2008 he
was on his way to take part with other members of his community in an event in
London. While he was at the petrol station he decided to inquire whether it would
be possible to print some documents from a USB stick which he was carrying.
5. The trial judge, Mr Recorder Khangure QC, accepted in full the claimant’s
account of what followed. The claimant went into the kiosk and explained to the
staff what he wanted. There were two or three staff present. Mr Khan, who was
behind the counter, replied by saying “We don’t do such shit”. The claimant
protested at being spoken to in that manner. Using foul, racist and threatening
language, Mr Khan ordered the claimant to leave. The claimant walked out of the
kiosk and returned to his car by the air pump. He was followed by Mr Khan. The
claimant got into his car and switched on the engine, but before he could drive off
Mr Khan opened the front passenger door and told him in threatening words never
to come back. The claimant told Mr Khan to get out of the car and shut the
passenger door. Instead, Mr Khan punched the claimant on his left temple, causing
him pain and shock. The claimant switched off the engine and got out in order to
walk round and close the passenger door. At this point Mr Khan again punched
him in the head, knocked him to the floor and subjected him to a serious attack,
involving punches and kicks, while the claimant lay curled up on the petrol station
forecourt, trying to protect his head from the blows. In carrying out the attack Mr
Khan ignored instructions from his supervisor, who came on the scene at some
stage and tried to stop Mr Khan from behaving as he did. The judge concluded that
the reasons for Mr Khan’s behaviour were a matter of speculation. The claimant
himself had said and done nothing which could be considered abusive or
aggressive
The trial judge’s decision
In a detailed and impressive judgment, the judge reviewed the principal
authorities. He expressed great sympathy for the claimant but concluded that the
company was not vicariously liable for Mr Khan’s unprovoked assault. His
principal reason was that although Mr Khan’s job involved some interaction with
customers and members of the public who attended the kiosk, it involved nothing
more than serving and helping them. There was not a sufficiently close connection
between what he was employed to do and his tortious conduct for his employer to
be held vicariously liable, applying the “close connection” test laid down in Lister
v Hesley Hall Ltd [2001] UKHL 22; [2001] 1 AC 215 and followed in later cases
including Dubai Aluminium Co Ltd v Salaam [2002] UKHL 48; [2003] 2 AC 366.
A further reason given by the judge was that Mr Khan made a positive decision to
come out from behind the counter and follow the claimant out of the kiosk in
contravention of instructions given to him.
The Court of Appeal’s decision
7. The Court of Appeal (Arden, Treacy and Christopher Clarke LJJ) upheld
the judge’s decision that the claim against the company failed the “close
connection” test. The main points made in the judgments were that Mr Khan’s
duties were circumscribed. He was not given duties involving a clear possibility of
confrontation or placed in a situation where an outbreak of violence was likely.
The fact that his employment involved interaction with customers was not enough
to make his employers liable for his use of violence towards the claimant.
Christopher Clarke LJ added that if the question had been simply whether it
would be fair and just for the company to be required to compensate the claimant
for his injuries from the assault, there would be strong grounds for saying that it
should. The assault arose out of an interchange which began when the claimant
asked to be supplied with a service which he thought the company could provide.
Mr Khan, whose job it was to deal with such a request, followed up his refusal
with an apparently motiveless attack on the customer, who was in no way at fault.
The customer was entitled to expect a polite response. Instead he was struck on the
head and kicked when on the ground. In those circumstances it could be said that
the employer could fairly be expected to bear the cost of compensation, rather than
that the victim should be left without any civil remedy except against an assailant
who was unlikely to be able to pay full compensation. However, he concluded that
this was not the legal test, and that the fact that Mr Khan’s job involved interaction
with the public did not provide the degree of connection between his employment
and the assault which was necessary for the employer to be held vicariously liable.
[1] The general rule is that one who expressly authorises or ratifies a tort is personally liable, but there are circumstances in which a person is liable for the torts of another even in the absence of such authorisation or ratification. The liability which thus arises is known as vicarious liability and the most common example of it is the liability of a master for the torts of his servants committed in the course of their employment.
[2] Assault is an act which directly and intentionally (or possibly negligently) causes the plaintiff reasonably to apprehend that a battery is about to be inflicted upon him by the defendant.
- معلم: DERBAL ABDERRAZAK